Annals of Diagnostic Pathology
Volume 12, Issue 6 , Pages 445-457 , December 2008

Smoking-related interstitial lung disease

  • R. Nagarjun Rao, MD, FRCPath

      Affiliations

    • Department of Pathology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author. Department of Pathology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA. Tel.: +1 414 805 8442; fax: +1 414 805 8444.
  • ,
  • Lawrence R. Goodman, MD, FACR

      Affiliations

    • Department of Radiology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
  • ,
  • Joseph F. Tomashefski Jr, MD

      Affiliations

    • Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University, Metrohealth Medical Center, Cleveland, OH 44109, USA

References 

  1. Bartecchi CE, Mackenzie TD, Schrier RW. The human costs of tobacco use. N Engl J Med. 1994;330:907–980
  2. Murin S, Hilbert J, Reilly SJ. Cigarette smoking and the lung. Clin Rev Immunol. 1997;15:307–336
  3. Reynolds HY. Diagnostic and management strategies of diffuse interstitial lung disease. Chest. 1998;113:192–202
  4. Schwarz MI. Approach to the understanding, diagnosis, and management of interstitial lung disease. In: Schwarz MI, King TE editor. Interstitial lung disease. 3rd ed.. St. Louis: Mosby-Year Book, Inc.; 1998;p. 3–30
  5. Colby TV, Swensen SJ. Anatomic distribution of histopathologic patterns in diffuse lung disease: correlation with HRCT. J Thoracic Imag. 1996;11:1–26
  6. Crystal RG, Bitterman PB, Rennard SI, Hance AJ, Keogh BA. Interstitial lung disease of unknown cause: disorders characterized by chronic inflammation of the lower respiratory tract. Part I. N Engl J Med. 1984;310:154–166
  7. Crystal RG, Bitterman PB, Rennard SI, Hance AJ, Keogh BA. Interstitial lung disease of unknown cause: disorders characterized by chronic inflammation of the lower respiratory tract. Part II. N Engl J Med. 1984;310:235–244
  8. Travis WD, King TE, Bateman ED, Lynch DA, Capron F, Center D, et al. American Thoracic Society/European Respiratory Society international multidisciplinary consensus classification of idiopathic interstitial pneumonias. General principles and recommendations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;165:277–304
  9. Selman M. The spectrum of smoking-related interstitial lung disorders: the never-ending story of smoke and disease. Chest. 2003;124:1185–1187
  10. Aubry MC, Wright JL, Myers JL. The pathology of smoking-related lung diseases. Clin Chest Med. 2000;21:11–35
  11. Nagai S, Hoshino Y, Hayashi M, Ito I. Smoking-related interstitial lung diseases. Curr Opin Pulmon Med. 2000;6:415–419
  12. Ryu JH, Colby TV, Hartman TE, Vassallo R. Smoking-related intersttitial lung diseases: a concise review. Eur Respir J. 2001;17:122–132
  13. Hammond EC, Auerbach O, Kirman D, Garfinkel L. Effects of cigarette smoking on dogs. Arch Environ Health. 1970;21:740–753
  14. Leopold JG, Gough J. The centrilobular form of hypertrophic emphysema and its relation to chronic bronchitis. Thorax. 1957;12:219–235
  15. Niewoehner DE, Kleinerman J, Rice DB. Pathologic changes in the peripheral airways of young cigarette smokers. N Engl J Med. 1974;291:755–788
  16. Fraig M, Shreesha U, Savici D, Katzenstein AL. Respiratory bronchiolitis: a clinicopathologic study in current smokers, ex-smokers and never-smokers. Am J Surg Pathol. 2002;26:647–653
  17. Cottin V, Streichenberger N, Gamondes JP, Thevenet F, Loire R, Cordier JF. Respiratory bronchiolitis in smokers with spontaneous pneumothorax. Eur Resp J. 1998;12:702–704
  18. Remy-Jardin M, Remy J, Gosselin B, Becette V, Edme JL. Lung parenchymal changes secondary to cigarette smoking: pathologic-CT correlations. Radiology. 1993;186:643–651
  19. Agius RM, Rutman A, Knight RK, Cole PJ. Human pulmonary alveolar macrophages with smokers' inclusions: their relation to the cessation of cigarette smoking. Br J Exp Pathol. 1986;67:407–413
  20. Myers JL, Veal CF, Shin MS, Katzenstein AL. Respiratory bronchiolitis causing interstitial lung disease: a clinicopathological study of six cases. Am Rev Resp Dis. 1987;135:880–884
  21. Yousem SA, Colby TV, Gaensler EA. Respiratory bronchiolitis–associated interstitial lung disease and its relationship to desquamative interstitial pneumonia. Mayo Clin Proc. 1989;64:1373–1380
  22. Moon J, du Bois RM, Colby TV, Hansell DM, Nicholson AG. Clinical significance of respiratory bronchiolitis on open lung biopsy and its relationship to smoking related interstitial lung disease. Thorax. 1999;54:1009–1014
  23. Carrington CB, Gaensler EA, Coutu RE, FitzGerald MX, Gupta RG. Natural history and treated course of usual and desquamative interstitial pneumonia. New Engl J Med. 1978;298:801–809
  24. Soler P, Kambouchner M, Valeyre D, Hance AJ. Pulmonary Langerhans' cell granulomatosis (histiocytosis X). Annu Rev Med. 1992;43:105–115
  25. Travis WD, Borok Z, Roum JH, Zhang J, Feuerstein I, Ferrans VJ, et al. Pulmonary Langerhans cell granulomatosis (histiocytosis X): a clinicopathologic study of 48 cases. Am J Surg Pathol. 1993;17:971–986
  26. Tazi A, Soler P, Hance AJ. Adult pulmonary Langerhans' cell histiocytosis. Thorax. 2000;55:405–416
  27. Vassallo R, Ryu JH, Colby TV, Hartman T, Limper AH. Pulmonary Langerhans'-cell histiocytosis. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:1969–1978
  28. Casolaro MA, Bernaudin JF, Saltini C, Ferrans VJ, Crystal RG. Accumulation of Langerhans' cells on the epithelial surface of the lower respiratory tract in normal subjects in association with cigarette smoking. Am Rev Resp Dis. 1988;137:406–411
  29. Hance AJ, Bassett F, Saumon G, Danel C, Valeyre D, Battesti JP, et al. Smoking and interstitial lung disease. The effect of cigarette smoking on the incidence of pulmonary histiocytosis X and sarcoidosis. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1986;465:643–656
  30. Soler P, Tazi A, Hance AJ. Pulmonary Langerhans cell granulomatosis. Curr Opin Pulm Med. 1995;1:406–416
  31. Tazi A, Bonay M, Grandsaigne M, Battesti JP, Hance AJ, Soler P. Surface phenotype of Langerhans cells and lymphocytes in granulomatous lesions from patients with pulmonary histiocytosis X. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1993;147:1531–1536
  32. Tazi A, Moreau J, Bergeron A, Dominique S, Hance AJ, Soler P. Evidence that Langerhans cells in adult pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis are mature dendritic cells: importance of the cytokine microenvironment. J Immunol. 1999;163:3511–3515
  33. Zeid NA, Muller HK. Tobacco smoke induced lung granulomas and tumors: association with pulmonary Langerhans cells. Pathology. 1995;27:247–254
  34. Cosio M, Ghezzo H, Hogg JC, Corbin R, Loveland M, Dosman J, et al. The relations between structural changes in small airways and pulmonary function tests. N Engl J Med. 1978;298:1277–1281
  35. Brody AR, Craighead JE. Cytoplasmic inclusions in pulmonary macrophages of cigarette smokers. Lab Invest. 1975;32:125–132
  36. Yousem SA. Respiratory-bronchiolitis–associated interstitial lung disease with fibrosis is a lesion distinct from fibrotic nonspecific interstitial pneumonia: a proposal. Mod Pathol. 2006;19:1474–1479
  37. Katzenstein A, Fiorelli R. Nonspecific interstitial pneumonia/fibrosis. Histologic features and clinical significance. Am J Surg Pathol. 1994;18:136–147
  38. Kinder BW, Collard HR, Koth L, Daikh DI, Wolters PJ, Elicker B, et al. Idiopathic nonspecific interstitial pneumonia. Lung manifestation of undifferentiated connective tissue disease?. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2007;176:691–697
  39. Liebow AA, Steer A, Billingsley JG. Desquamative interstitial pneumonia. Am J of Med. 1965;39:369–404
  40. Tubbs RR, Benjamin SP, Osborne DG, Barenberg S. Surface and transmission ultrastructural characteristics of desquamative interstitial pneumonitis. Hum Pathol. 1978;9:693–703
  41. Fromm GB, Dunn LJ, Harris JO. Desquamative interstitial pneumonitis: characterization of free intraalveolar cells. Chest. 1980;77:552–555
  42. Tubbs RR, Benjamin SP, Reich NE, McCormack LJ, Van Ordstrand HS. Desquamative interstitial pneumonitis. Cellular phase of fibrosing alveolitis. Chest. 1977;72:159–165
  43. Abraham JL, Hertzberg MA. Inorganic particulates associated with desquamative interstitial pneumonia. Chest (Supplement). 1981;80:67–70
  44. Katzenstein AL, Myers JL. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: clinical relevance of pathologic classification. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;157:1301–1315
  45. Ryu JH, Myers JL, Capizzi SA, Douglas WW, Vassallo R, Decker PA. Desquamative interstitial pneumonia and respiratory bronchiolitis–associated interstitial lung disease. Chest. 2005;127:178–184
  46. Rosenow EC, O’Connell EJ, Harrison EG. Desquamative interstitial pneumonia in children. Report of two cases. Amer J Dis Child. 1970;120:344–348
  47. Lipworth B, Woodcock A, Addis B, Turner-Warwick M. Late relapse of desquamative interstitial pneumonia. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1987;136:1253–1255
  48. Verleden GM, Sels F, Van Raemdonck D, Verbeken EK, Lerut T, Demedts M. Possible recurrence of desquamative interstitial pneumonitis in a single lung transplant recipient. Eur Respir J. 1998;11:971–974
  49. Tomashefski JF, Khiyami A, Kleinerman J. Neoplasms associated with pulmonary eosinophilic granuloma. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1991;115:499–506
  50. Rao RN, Chang CC, Tomashefski JF. Lymphocyte sub-populations and non-Langerhans' cell monocytoid cells in pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Pathol Res Pract. 2008;208:315–322
  51. Lombard CM, Medeiros J, Colby TV. Pulmonary histiocytosis X and carcinoma. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1987;111:339–341
  52. Sajjad SM, Luna MA. Primary pulmonary histiocytosis X in two patients with Hodgkin's disease. Thorax. 1982;37:110–113
  53. Hammar SP, Allen TC. Histiocytosis and storage diseases. In:  Tomashefski JF,  Farver C,  Cagle PT,  Fraire A editor. Dail and Hammar's pulmonary pathology. 3rd ed.. New York: Springer; 2008;p. 600–649
  54. Kambouchner M, Basset F, Marchal J, Uhl JF, Hance AJ, Soler P. Three-dimensional characterization of pathologic lesions in pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2002;166:1483–1490
  55. Colby TV, Lombard C. Histiocytosis X in the lung. Hum Pathol. 1983;14:847–856
  56. Fartoukh M, Humbert M, Capron F, Maitre S, Parent F, La Gall C, et al. Severe pulmonary hypertension in histiocytosis X. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161:216–223
  57. Housini I, Tomashefski JF, Cohen A, Crass J, Kleinerman J. Transbronchial biopsy in patients with pulmonary eosinophilic granuloma. Comparison with findings on open lung biopsy. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1994;118:523–530
  58. Askin FB, McCann BG, Kuhn C. Reactive eosinophilic pleuritis. A lesion to be distinguished from pulmonary eosinophilic granuloma. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1977;101:187–191
  59. McDonnell TJ, Crouch EC, Gonzalez JG. Reactive eosinophilic pleuritis: a sequela of pneumothorax in pulmonary eosinophilic granuloma. Am J Clin Pathol. 1989;91:107–109
  60. Mogulkoc N, Veral A, Bishop PW, Bayindir U, Pickering CA, Egan JJ. Pulmonary Langerhans' cell histiocytosis: radiologic resolution following smoking cessation. Chest. 1999;115:1452–1455
  61. Bedrossian CWM, Kuhn C, Luna MA, Conklin RH, Byrd BB, Kaplan PD. Desquamative interstitial pneumonia-like reaction accompanying pulmonary lesions. Chest. 1977;72:166–169
  62. Wall CP, Gaensler EA, Carrington CB, Hayes JA. Comparison of transbronchial and open lung biopsies in chronic infiltrative lung diseases. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1981;123:280–285
  63. Fichtenbaum DJ, Kleinman GM, Haddad RG. Eosinophilic granuloma of the lung presenting as a solitary pulmonary nodule. Thorax. 1990;45:905–906
  64. Colby TV, Yousem SA. Lungs. In:  Sternberg SS editors. Histology for pathologists. New York: Raven Press; 1992;p. 479–497
  65. Webber D, Tron V, Askin F, et al. S-100 Staining in the diagnosis of eosinophilic granuloma of lung. Am J Clin Pathol. 1985;84:447–453
  66. Kawanami O, Basset F, Ferrans VJ, Soler P, Crystal RG. Pulmonary Langerhans cells in patients with fibrotic lung disorders. Lab Invest. 1981;44:227–233
  67. Sholl LM, Hornick JL, Pinkus JL, Pinkus GS, Padera RF. Immunohistochemical analysis of Langerin in Langerhans cell histiocytosis and pulmonary inflammatory and infectious diseases. Am J Surg Pathol. 2007;31:947–952
  68. Chollet S, Soler P, Dournovo P, Richard MS, Ferrans VJ, Basset F. Diagnosis of pulmonary histiocytosis X by immunodetection of Langerhans cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Am J Pathol. 1984;115:225–232
  69. Remy-Jardin M, Edme JL, Boulenguez C, Remy J, Mastora I, Sobaszek A. Longitudinal follow-up study of smokers' lung with thin-section CT in correlation with pulmonary function tests. Radiology. 2002;222:261–270
  70. Heyneman LE, Ward S, Lynch DA, Remy-Jardin M, Johkoh T, Muller NL. Respiratory bronchiolitis, respiratory bronchiolitis-associated interstitial lung disease and desquamative interstitial pneumonia: different entities or part of the spectrum of the same disease process. Am J Roentgenol. 1999;173:1617–1622
  71. Hartman TE, Primack SL, Swensen SJ, Hansell D, McGuiness G, Muller NL. Desquamative interstitial pneumonia: thin-section CT findings in 22 patients. Radiology. 1993;187:787–790
  72. Vassallo R, Jensen EA, Colby TV, Ryu JH, Douglas WW, Hartman TE, et al. The overlap between respiratory bronchiolitis and desquamative interstitial pneumonia in pulmonary Langerhans cell histiocytosis. High-resolution CT, histologic, and functional correlations. Chest. 2003;124:1199–1205
  73. Pai U, Tomashefski JF. Occult (?incipient) pulmonary eosinophilic granuloma. An incidental finding in the lungs of cigarette smokers. Am J Clin Pathol. 1993;99:335
  74. Weiss W. Cigarette smoking and diffuse pulmonary fibrosis. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1969;99:67–72
  75. Baumgartner KB, Samet JM, Stidley CA, Colby TV, Waldron JA. Cigarette smoking: a risk factor for idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;1555:242–248
  76. Steele MP, Speer MC, Loyd JE, Brown KK, Heron A, Slifer SH, et al. Clinical and pathological features of familial interstitial pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;172:1146–1152
  77. Flaherty KR, Hunninghake GG. Smoking. An injury with many lung manifestations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005;172:1070–1071
  78. Antoniou KM, Hansell DM, Rubens MB, Marten K, Desai SR, Siafakas NM, et al. Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis: outcome in relation to smoking status. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008;177:190–194
  79. Sahn SA, Heffner JE. Spontaneous pneumothorax. NEJM. 2000;342:868–873
  80. Bense L, Eklund G, Wiman LG. Smoking and the increased risk of contracting spontaneous pneumothorax. Chest. 1987;92:1009–1012
  81. Tomashefski JF, Dahms B, Bruce M. Pleura in pneumothorax. Comparison of patients with cystic fibrosis and ‘idiopathic’ spontaneous pneumothorax. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1985;109:910–916
  82. Lichter I, Gwynne JF. Spontaneous pneumothorax in young subjects. A clinical and pathological study. Thorax. 1971;26:409–573
  83. Shintani H, Fujimura M, Yasui M, Ueda K, Kameda S, Noto M, et al. Acute eosinophilic pneumonia caused by cigarette smoking. Intern Med. 2000;39:66–68
  84. Nakajima M, Manabe T, Niki Y, Matsushima T. Cigarrette-smoke induced acute eosinophilic pneumonia. Radiology. 1998;207:829–831
  85. Watanabe K, Fujimura M, Kasahara K, Yasui M, Myou S, Kita T, et al. Acute eosinophilic pneumonia following cigarette smoking: a case report including cigarette-smoking challenge test. Intern Med. 2002;41:1016–1020
  86. Selman M. Hypersensitivity pneumonitis. In:  Schwarz MI,  King TE editor. Interstitial lung disease. Hamilton, Ontario: Decker; 2003;p. 452–484
  87. Douglas JG, Middleton WG, Gaddie J, Petrie GR, Choo-Kang YF, Prescott RJ, et al. Sarcoidosis: a disorder commoner in non-smokers?. Thorax. 1986;41:787–791

PII: S1092-9134(08)00097-X

doi: 10.1016/j.anndiagpath.2008.10.001

Annals of Diagnostic Pathology
Volume 12, Issue 6 , Pages 445-457 , December 2008